Types of Agreements. All nuclear trade requires agreements governing how trade will proceed. The nature of nuclear energy and the potential for its misuse necessitates rigorous controls. Peaceful uses of nuclear power are governed first by a number of international treaties and conventions, With the Treaty on the Non- Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) [22] as the underpinning treaty for the global nuclear nonproliferation framework. There are 190 parties to the NPT. The only counties not parties to the NPT are Israel, India and Pakistan. North Korea was a member but withdrew. Countries that join and adhere to these treaties and conventions are then able to engage in more specific arrangements with other member countries. The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) is part of the nonproliferation framework and was established to develop and implement the Guidelines for nuclear exports and nuclear-related exports through transfers of nuclear-related dual-use equipment, materials and technologies [23]. The current participating governments are: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Republic Of Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and the United States. Another component of the nonproliferation framework is the International Atomic Energy Agency’s Safeguards system to include the Additional Protocol. This system of technical measures provides the world with assurance that nuclear material is not being diverted for proliferation purposes. Other multilateral agreements provides multi-country governance and cooperation such as the Euratom Treaty [24], which created a common nuclear marketplace for members of the European Union, or more commonly bi-lateral agreements between the provider and user countries. Another form of agreement is a bilateral agreement specific to two countries. In the U.S. the civilian nuclear cooperation agreement, commonly called “123 Agreement” is an example where the U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1954 requires an agreement be established between the U.S. and another country that defines the legal framework for significant nuclear cooperation with other countries [25]. As the relationship advances, other types of cooperation mechanisms such as “Implementing Arrangements” may be established. For example, in 2014 the United States and Vietnam entered into a 123 Agreement, an Implementing Arrangement was signed in May 2016 to further build on their cooperation in the civil nuclear field. This enhanced cooperation includes collaboration in the following areas build institutional connections enhance and promote public and private training and education, assist with the establishment of an effective regulator, strengthen security, and advance bilateral nuclear trade. The establishment of these formal government to government agreements on nuclear cooperation provide the environment and legal foundation for individual companies to cultivate relationships in these other countries that can lead to more agreements and contracts with the foreign government or foreign companies, and ultimately for trade to commence. Before the establishment of nuclear cooperation agreements such as a 123 Agreement in the U.S. and similar types of agreements with other countries, there is typically significant government to government engagement. To begin engagement, less formal mechanisms such as Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs) are established. As cooperation between the two countries deepens, other cooperation mechanisms in areas of mutual benefit are established. These types of agreements often expand the relationships. The same pattern is followed at the company level once countries have established relations [26]. The number and type of nuclear cooperation vary in types and level of engagement. Table 1 provides a listing by exporting countries engagement with countries interested in nuclear energy development. Canada Germany, Jordan, Mongolia China Algeria, Australia, Bangladesh, Egypt, Ghana, Italy, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Mongolia, Morocco, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Oman, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sudan, Uzbekistan France Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Euratom Countries, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Gabon, India, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Namibia, Niger, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, United States Japan Australia, Kazakhstan, Lithuania, Mongolia, Oman, Thailand, Turkey, Uzbekistan, Vietnam South Korea Australia, Bangladesh, Egypt, Finland, France, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Malaysia, Niger, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan Russia Algeria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belarus, Bolivia, Egypt, Indonesia, Italy, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Laos, Mongolia, Morocco, Myanmar (Burma), Namibia, Nigeria, Poland, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Venezuela, Vietnam United States Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Euratom Countries, India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Oman, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, South Africa, Taiwan, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Vietnam
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Types of Agreements. All nuclear trade requires agreements governing how trade will proceed. The nature of nuclear energy and the potential for its misuse necessitates rigorous controls. Peaceful uses of nuclear power are governed first by a number of international treaties and conventions, With the Treaty on the Non- Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) [22] as the underpinning treaty for the global nuclear nonproliferation framework. There are 190 parties to the NPT. The only counties not parties to the NPT are Israel, India and Pakistan. North Korea was a member but withdrew. Countries that join and adhere to these treaties and conventions are then able to engage in more specific arrangements with other member countries. The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) is part of the nonproliferation framework and was established to develop and implement the Guidelines for nuclear exports and nuclear-related exports through transfers of nuclear-related dual-use equipment, materials and technologies [23]. The current participating governments are: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Republic Of Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and the United States. Another component of the nonproliferation framework is the International Atomic Energy Agency’s Safeguards system to include the Additional Protocol. This system of technical measures provides the world with assurance that nuclear material is not being diverted for proliferation purposes. Other multilateral agreements provides multi-country governance and cooperation such as the Euratom Treaty [24], which created a common nuclear marketplace for members of the European Union, or more commonly bi-lateral agreements between the provider and user countries. Another form of agreement is a bilateral agreement specific to two countries. In the U.S. the civilian nuclear cooperation agreement, commonly called “123 Agreement” is an example where the U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1954 requires an agreement be established between the U.S. and another country that defines the legal framework for significant nuclear cooperation with other countries [25]. As the relationship advances, other types of cooperation mechanisms such as “Implementing Arrangements” may be established. For example, in 2014 the United States and Vietnam entered into a 123 Agreement, an Implementing Arrangement was signed in May 2016 to further build on their cooperation in the civil nuclear field. This enhanced cooperation includes collaboration in the following areas build institutional connections enhance and promote public and private training and education, assist with the establishment of an effective regulator, strengthen security, and advance bilateral nuclear trade. The establishment of these formal government to government agreements on nuclear cooperation provide the environment and legal foundation for individual companies to cultivate relationships in these other countries that can lead to more agreements and contracts with the foreign government or foreign companies, and ultimately for trade to commence. Before the establishment of nuclear cooperation agreements such as a 123 Agreement in the U.S. and similar types of agreements with other countries, there is typically significant government to government engagement. To begin engagement, less formal mechanisms such as Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs) are established. As cooperation between the two countries deepens, other cooperation mechanisms in areas of mutual benefit are established. These types of agreements often expand the relationships. The same pattern is followed at the company level once countries have established relations [26]. The number and type of nuclear cooperation vary in types and level of engagement. Table 1 provides a listing by exporting countries engagement with countries interested in nuclear energy development. Canada Germany, Jordan, Mongolia China Algeria, Australia, Bangladesh, Egypt, Ghana, Italy, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Mongolia, Morocco, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Oman, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sudan, Uzbekistan France Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Euratom Countries, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Gabon, India, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Namibia, Niger, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, United States Japan Australia, Kazakhstan, Lithuania, Mongolia, Oman, Thailand, Turkey, Uzbekistan, Vietnam South Korea Australia, Bangladesh, Egypt, Finland, France, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Malaysia, Niger, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan Russia Algeria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belarus, Bolivia, Egypt, Indonesia, Italy, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Laos, Mongolia, Morocco, Myanmar (Burma), Namibia, Nigeria, Poland, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Venezuela, Vietnam United States Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Euratom Countries, India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Oman, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, South Africa, Taiwan, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Vietnam.
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